Bcl-2-associated X protein

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigation Jump to search

BAX
Available structures PDB Ortholog search: PDBe RCSB List of PDB id codes 4BDU, 1F16, 2G5B, 2K7W, 2LR1, 3PK1, 3PL7, 4BD2, 4BD6, 4BD7, 4BD8, 4UF2, 4ZIE, 4ZIF, 4ZIG, 4ZIH, 4ZII, 4S0O
Identifiers
Aliases	BAX, BCL2L4, BCL2 associated X protein, BCL2 associated X, apoptosis regulator
External IDs	OMIM: 600040 MGI: 99702 HomoloGene: 7242 GeneCards: BAX
Gene location (Human) Chr. Chromosome 19 (human)[1] Band 19q13.33 Start 48,954,815 bp[1] End 48,961,798 bp[1]
Gene location (Mouse) Chr. Chromosome 7 (mouse)[2] Band 7 B3|7 29.32 cM Start 45,111,121 bp[2] End 45,116,322 bp[2]
RNA expression pattern Bgee Top expressed in adrenal gland spleen lymph node blood right lung appendix More reference expression data BioGPS More reference expression data
Gene ontology Molecular function protein homodimerization activity channel activity GO:0001948 protein binding BH3 domain binding chaperone binding protein heterodimerization activity identical protein binding lipid binding Hsp70 protein binding Cellular component cytosol nuclear envelope membrane Bcl-2 family protein complex mitochondrion nucleus mitochondrial permeability transition pore complex mitochondrial membrane BAX complex endoplasmic reticulum extracellular exosome pore complex integral component of membrane intracellular anatomical structure endoplasmic reticulum membrane cytoplasm mitochondrial outer membrane cell periphery Biological process negative regulation of neuron apoptotic process response to ionizing radiation germ cell development positive regulation of calcium ion transport into cytosol glycosphingolipid metabolic process B cell apoptotic process response to salt stress Sertoli cell proliferation thymocyte apoptotic process T cell homeostatic proliferation post-embryonic development regulation of mitochondrial membrane permeability involved in apoptotic process negative regulation of protein binding cellular response to DNA damage stimulus regulation of mitochondrial membrane permeability involved in programmed necrotic cell death odontogenesis of dentin-containing tooth positive regulation of extrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway in absence of ligand positive regulation of IRE1-mediated unfolded protein response blood vessel remodeling positive regulation of neuron apoptotic process apoptotic process involved in blood vessel morphogenesis activation of cysteine-type endopeptidase activity involved in apoptotic process by cytochrome c spermatogenesis apoptotic signaling pathway cell population proliferation mitochondrion morphogenesis activation of cysteine-type endopeptidase activity involved in apoptotic process negative regulation of cell population proliferation cellular response to organic substance B cell homeostatic proliferation limb morphogenesis release of matrix enzymes from mitochondria extrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway kidney development activation of cysteine-type endopeptidase activity involved in apoptotic signaling pathway negative regulation of apoptotic signaling pathway myeloid cell homeostasis regulation of neuron apoptotic process regulation of cysteine-type endopeptidase activity involved in apoptotic process endoplasmic reticulum calcium ion homeostasis response to wounding intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway by p53 class mediator hypothalamus development GO:0022415 viral process protein homooligomerization response to gamma radiation negative regulation of fibroblast proliferation positive regulation of intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway response to toxic substance B cell negative selection mitochondrial fusion neuron apoptotic process male gonad development positive regulation of B cell apoptotic process regulation of protein heterodimerization activity positive regulation of mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization involved in apoptotic signaling pathway cellular response to UV sex differentiation neuron migration B cell homeostasis positive regulation of release of sequestered calcium ion into cytosol positive regulation of apoptotic process involved in mammary gland involution nervous system development spermatid differentiation development of secondary sexual characteristics positive regulation of developmental pigmentation retina development in camera-type eye response to axon injury positive regulation of mitochondrial membrane permeability involved in apoptotic process cerebral cortex development ovarian follicle development fertilization ectopic germ cell programmed cell death homeostasis of number of cells within a tissue positive regulation of release of cytochrome c from mitochondria B cell receptor apoptotic signaling pathway negative regulation of endoplasmic reticulum calcium ion concentration regulation of protein homodimerization activity apoptotic process involved in embryonic digit morphogenesis leukocyte homeostasis positive regulation of apoptotic DNA fragmentation mitochondrial fragmentation involved in apoptotic process positive regulation of endoplasmic reticulum unfolded protein response establishment or maintenance of transmembrane electrochemical gradient homeostasis of number of cells vagina development post-embryonic camera-type eye morphogenesis regulation of mammary gland epithelial cell proliferation retinal cell programmed cell death regulation of cell cycle regulation of mitochondrial membrane potential intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway in response to endoplasmic reticulum stress apoptotic mitochondrial changes protein complex oligomerization regulation of nitrogen utilization negative regulation of peptidyl-serine phosphorylation positive regulation of apoptotic process positive regulation of protein oligomerization extrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway via death domain receptors release of cytochrome c from mitochondria apoptotic process protein insertion into mitochondrial membrane involved in apoptotic signaling pathway intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway regulation of apoptotic process DNA damage response, signal transduction by p53 class mediator resulting in cell cycle arrest intrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway in response to DNA damage extrinsic apoptotic signaling pathway in absence of ligand transcription initiation from RNA polymerase II promoter cellular response to unfolded protein negative regulation of mitochondrial membrane potential Sources:Amigo / QuickGO
Orthologs
Species	Human	Mouse
Entrez	581	12028
Ensembl	ENSG00000087088	ENSMUSG00000003873
UniProt	Q07812 Q5ZPJ0	Q07813
RefSeq (mRNA)	NM_001291428 NM_001291429 NM_001291430 NM_001291431 NM_004324 NM_138761 NM_138762 NM_138763 NM_138764	NM_007527
RefSeq (protein)	NP_001278357 NP_001278358 NP_001278359 NP_001278360 NP_004315 NP_620116 NP_620118 NP_620119 NP_001278358.1	NP_031553
Location (UCSC)	Chr 19: 48.95 – 48.96 Mb	Chr 7: 45.11 – 45.12 Mb
PubMed search	[3]	[4]
Wikidata
View/Edit Human View/Edit Mouse

Apoptosis regulator BAX, also known as bcl-2-like protein 4, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the BAX gene. BAX is a member of the Bcl-2 gene family. BCL2 family members form hetero- or homodimers and act as anti- or pro-apoptotic regulators that are involved in a wide variety of cellular activities. This protein forms a heterodimer with BCL2, and functions as an apoptotic activator. This protein is reported to interact with, and increase the opening of, the mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC), which leads to the loss in membrane potential and the release of cytochrome c. The expression of this gene is regulated by the tumor suppressor P53 and has been shown to be involved in P53-mediated apoptosis.^[5]

Contents

• 1 Structure
• 2 Function
• 3 Clinical significance
• 4 Interactions
• 5 See also
• 6 References
• 7 External links

Structure[edit]

The BAX gene was the first identified pro-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 protein family.^[6] Bcl-2 family members share one or more of the four characteristic domains of homology entitled the Bcl-2 homology (BH) domains (named BH1, BH2, BH3 and BH4), and can form hetero- or homodimers.^[6][7] These domains are composed of nine α-helices, with a hydrophobic α-helix core surrounded by amphipathic helices and a transmembrane C-terminal α-helix anchored to the mitochondrial outer membrane (MOM). A hydrophobic groove formed along the C-terminal of α2 to the N-terminal of α5, and some residues from α8, binds the BH3 domain of other BAX or BCL-2 proteins in its active form. In the protein's inactive form, the groove binds its transmembrane domain, transitioning it from a membrane-bound to a cytosolic protein. A smaller hydrophobic groove formed by the α1 and α6 helices is located on the opposite side of the protein from the major groove, and may serve as a BAX activation site.^[8]

Orthologs of the BAX gene have been identified in most mammals for which complete genome data are available.^[9]

Function[edit]

In healthy mammalian cells, the majority of BAX is found in the cytosol, but upon initiation of apoptotic signaling, Bax undergoes a conformational shift. Upon induction of apoptosis, BAX becomes organelle membrane-associated, and in particular, mitochondrial membrane associated.^{[10][11][12][13][14]}

BAX is believed to interact with, and induce the opening of the mitochondrial voltage-dependent anion channel, VDAC.^[15] Alternatively, growing evidence also suggests that activated BAX and/or Bak form an oligomeric pore, MAC in the MOM (mitochondrial outer membrane).^[16][17] This results in the release of cytochrome c and other pro-apoptotic factors from the mitochondria, often referred to as mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization, leading to activation of caspases.^[18] This defines a direct role for BAX in mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization. BAX activation is stimulated by various abiotic factors, including heat, hydrogen peroxide, low or high pH, and mitochondrial membrane remodeling. In addition, it can become activated by binding BCL-2, as well as non-BCL-2 proteins such as p53 and Bif-1. Conversely, BAX can become inactivated by interacting with VDAC2, Pin1, and IBRDC2.^[8]

Clinical significance[edit]

The expression of BAX is upregulated by the tumor suppressor protein p53, and BAX has been shown to be involved in p53-mediated apoptosis. The p53 protein is a transcription factor that, when activated as part of the cell's response to stress, regulates many downstream target genes, including BAX. Wild-type p53 has been demonstrated to upregulate the transcription of a chimeric reporter plasmid utilizing the consensus promoter sequence of BAX approximately 50-fold over mutant p53. Thus it is likely that p53 promotes BAX's apoptotic faculties in vivo as a primary transcription factor. However, p53 also has a transcription-independent role in apoptosis. In particular, p53 interacts with BAX, promoting its activation as well as its insertion into the mitochondrial membrane.^[19][20][21]

Drugs that activate BAX, such as ABT-737, a BH3 mimetic, hold promise as anticancer treatments by inducing apoptosis in cancer cells.^[8] For instance, binding of HA-BAD to BCL-xL and concomitant disruption of BAX:BCL-xL interaction was found to partly reverse paclitaxel resistance in human ovarian cancer cells.^[22] Meanwhile, excessive apoptosis in such conditions as ischemia reperfusion injury and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis may benefit from drug inhibitors of BAX.^[8]

Interactions[edit]

Overview of signal transduction pathways involved with apoptosis.

Bcl-2-associated X protein has been shown to interact with:

• Bcl-2,^{[6][7][23][24][25]}
• BCL2L1,^{[7][22][26][27]}
• BCL2A1^[7][28]
• SH3GLB1,^[13][29]
• SLC25A4,^[30]
• VDAC1,^[15][18]
• TCTP,^[31]
• YWHAQ,^[32]
• Bid,^[8]
• Bim,^[8]
• Puma,^[8]
• Noxa,^[8]
• Mfn2,^[33]
• cholesterol,^[34] and
• cardiolipin.^[34]

See also[edit]

• Apoptosis
• Apoptosome
• Bcl-2
• BH3 interacting domain death agonist (BID)
• Caspases
• Cytochrome c
• Noxa
• Mitochondrion
• p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis (PUMA)

References[edit]

1. ^ ^{a b c} GRCh38: Ensembl release 89: ENSG00000087088 - Ensembl, May 2017
2. ^ ^{a b c} GRCm38: Ensembl release 89: ENSMUSG00000003873 - Ensembl, May 2017
3. ^ "Human PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
4. ^ "Mouse PubMed Reference:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine.
5. ^ "Entrez Gene: BCL2-associated X protein".
6. ^ ^{a b c} Oltvai ZN, Milliman CL, Korsmeyer SJ (August 1993). "Bcl-2 heterodimerizes in vivo with a conserved homolog, Bax, that accelerates programmed cell death". Cell. 74 (4): 609–19. doi:10.1016/0092-8674(93)90509-O. PMID 8358790. S2CID 31151334.
7. ^ ^{a b c d} Sedlak TW, Oltvai ZN, Yang E, Wang K, Boise LH, Thompson CB, Korsmeyer SJ (August 1995). "Multiple Bcl-2 family members demonstrate selective dimerizations with Bax". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92 (17): 7834–8. Bibcode:1995PNAS...92.7834S. doi:10.1073/pnas.92.17.7834. PMC 41240. PMID 7644501.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h} Westphal, D; Kluck, RM; Dewson, G (February 2014). "Building blocks of the apoptotic pore: how Bax and Bak are activated and oligomerize during apoptosis". Cell Death & Differentiation. 21 (2): 196–205. doi:10.1038/cdd.2013.139. PMC 3890949. PMID 24162660.
9. ^ "OrthoMaM phylogenetic marker: BAX coding sequence". Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 20 December 2009.
10. ^ Gross A, Jockel J, Wei MC, Korsmeyer SJ (July 1998). "Enforced dimerization of BAX results in its translocation, mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis". EMBO J. 17 (14): 3878–85. doi:10.1093/emboj/17.14.3878. PMC 1170723. PMID 9670005.
11. ^ Hsu YT, Wolter KG, Youle RJ (April 1997). "Cytosol-to-membrane redistribution of Bax and Bcl-X(L) during apoptosis". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94 (8): 3668–72. Bibcode:1997PNAS...94.3668H. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.8.3668. PMC 20498. PMID 9108035.
12. ^ Nechushtan A, Smith CL, Hsu YT, Youle RJ (May 1999). "Conformation of the Bax C-terminus regulates subcellular location and cell death". EMBO J. 18 (9): 2330–41. doi:10.1093/emboj/18.9.2330. PMC 1171316. PMID 10228148.
13. ^ ^{a b} Pierrat B, Simonen M, Cueto M, Mestan J, Ferrigno P, Heim J (January 2001). "SH3GLB, a new endophilin-related protein family featuring an SH3 domain". Genomics. 71 (2): 222–34. doi:10.1006/geno.2000.6378. PMID 11161816.
14. ^ Wolter KG, Hsu YT, Smith CL, Nechushtan A, Xi XG, Youle RJ (December 1997). "Movement of Bax from the cytosol to mitochondria during apoptosis". J. Cell Biol. 139 (5): 1281–92. doi:10.1083/jcb.139.5.1281. PMC 2140220. PMID 9382873.
15. ^ ^{a b} Shi Y, Chen J, Weng C, Chen R, Zheng Y, Chen Q, Tang H (June 2003). "Identification of the protein–protein contact site and interaction mode of human VDAC1 with Bcl-2 family proteins". Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 305 (4): 989–96. doi:10.1016/S0006-291X(03)00871-4. PMID 12767928.
16. ^ Buytaert E, Callewaert G, Vandenheede JR, Agostinis P (2006). "Deficiency in apoptotic effectors Bax and Bak reveals an autophagic cell death pathway initiated by photodamage to the endoplasmic reticulum". Autophagy. 2 (3): 238–40. doi:10.4161/auto.2730. PMID 16874066.
17. ^ McArthur, Kate; Whitehead, Lachlan W.; Heddleston, John M.; Li, Lucy; Padman, Benjamin S.; Oorschot, Viola; Geoghegan, Niall D.; Chappaz, Stephane; Davidson, Sophia; San Chin, Hui; Lane, Rachael M.; Dramicanin, Marija; Saunders, Tahnee L.; Sugiana, Canny; Lessene, Romina; Osellame, Laura D.; Chew, Teng-Leong; Dewson, Grant; Lazarou, Michael; Ramm, Georg; Lessene, Guillaume; Ryan, Michael T.; Rogers, Kelly L.; van Delft, Mark F.; Kile, Benjamin T. (22 February 2018). "BAK/BAX macropores facilitate mitochondrial herniation and mtDNA efflux during apoptosis". Science. 359 (6378): eaao6047. doi:10.1126/science.aao6047. PMID 29472455.
18. ^ ^{a b} Weng C, Li Y, Xu D, Shi Y, Tang H (March 2005). "Specific cleavage of Mcl-1 by caspase-3 in tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-induced apoptosis in Jurkat leukemia T cells". J. Biol. Chem. 280 (11): 10491–500. doi:10.1074/jbc.M412819200. PMID 15637055.
19. ^ Miyashita T, Krajewski S, Krajewska M, Wang HG, Lin HK, Liebermann DA, Hoffman B, Reed JC (June 1994). "Tumor suppressor p53 is a regulator of bcl-2 and bax gene expression in vitro and in vivo". Oncogene. 9 (6): 1799–805. PMID 8183579.
20. ^ Selvakumaran M, Lin HK, Miyashita T, Wang HG, Krajewski S, Reed JC, Hoffman B, Liebermann D (June 1994). "Immediate early up-regulation of bax expression by p53 but not TGF beta 1: a paradigm for distinct apoptotic pathways". Oncogene. 9 (6): 1791–8. PMID 8183578.
21. ^ Miyashita T, Reed JC (January 1995). "Tumor suppressor p53 is a direct transcriptional activator of the human bax gene". Cell. 80 (2): 293–9. doi:10.1016/0092-8674(95)90412-3. PMID 7834749. S2CID 14495370.
22. ^ ^{a b} Strobel T, Tai YT, Korsmeyer S, Cannistra SA (November 1998). "BAD partly reverses paclitaxel resistance in human ovarian cancer cells". Oncogene. 17 (19): 2419–27. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1202180. PMID 9824152.
23. ^ Hoetelmans RW (2004). "Nuclear partners of Bcl-2: Bax and PML". DNA Cell Biol. 23 (6): 351–4. doi:10.1089/104454904323145236. PMID 15231068.
24. ^ Lin B, Kolluri SK, Lin F, Liu W, Han YH, Cao X, Dawson MI, Reed JC, Zhang XK (2004). "Conversion of Bcl-2 from protector to killer by interaction with nuclear orphan receptor Nur77/TR3". Cell. 116 (4): 527–40. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(04)00162-X. PMID 14980220. S2CID 17808479.
25. ^ Komatsu K, Miyashita T, Hang H, Hopkins KM, Zheng W, Cuddeback S, Yamada M, Lieberman HB, Wang HG (2000). "Human homologue of S. pombe Rad9 interacts with BCL-2/BCL-xL and promotes apoptosis". Nat. Cell Biol. 2 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1038/71316. PMID 10620799. S2CID 52847351.
26. ^ Zhang H, Nimmer P, Rosenberg SH, Ng SC, Joseph M (2002). "Development of a high-throughput fluorescence polarization assay for Bcl-x(L)". Anal. Biochem. 307 (1): 70–5. doi:10.1016/S0003-2697(02)00028-3. PMID 12137781.
27. ^ Gillissen B, Essmann F, Graupner V, Stärck L, Radetzki S, Dörken B, Schulze-Osthoff K, Daniel PT (2003). "Induction of cell death by the BH3-only Bcl-2 homolog Nbk/Bik is mediated by an entirely Bax-dependent mitochondrial pathway". EMBO J. 22 (14): 3580–90. doi:10.1093/emboj/cdg343. PMC 165613. PMID 12853473.
28. ^ Zhang H, Cowan-Jacob SW, Simonen M, Greenhalf W, Heim J, Meyhack B (2000). "Structural basis of BFL-1 for its interaction with BAX and its anti-apoptotic action in mammalian and yeast cells". J. Biol. Chem. 275 (15): 11092–9. doi:10.1074/jbc.275.15.11092. PMID 10753914.
29. ^ Cuddeback SM, Yamaguchi H, Komatsu K, Miyashita T, Yamada M, Wu C, Singh S, Wang HG (2001). "Molecular cloning and characterization of Bif-1. A novel Src homology 3 domain-containing protein that associates with Bax". J. Biol. Chem. 276 (23): 20559–65. doi:10.1074/jbc.M101527200. PMID 11259440.
30. ^ Marzo I, Brenner C, Zamzami N, Jürgensmeier JM, Susin SA, Vieira HL, Prévost MC, Xie Z, Matsuyama S, Reed JC, Kroemer G (1998). "Bax and adenine nucleotide translocator cooperate in the mitochondrial control of apoptosis". Science. 281 (5385): 2027–31. Bibcode:1998Sci...281.2027M. doi:10.1126/science.281.5385.2027. PMID 9748162.
31. ^ Susini L; et al. (August 2008). "TCTP protects from apoptotic cell death by antagonizing bax function". Cell Death Differ. 15 (8): 1211–20. doi:10.1038/cdd.2008.18. PMID 18274553.
32. ^ Nomura M, Shimizu S, Sugiyama T, Narita M, Ito T, Matsuda H, Tsujimoto Y (2003). "14-3-3 Interacts directly with and negatively regulates pro-apoptotic Bax". J. Biol. Chem. 278 (3): 2058–65. doi:10.1074/jbc.M207880200. PMID 12426317.
33. ^ Hoppins, Suzanne; Edlich, Frank; Cleland, Megan M.; Banerjee, Soojay; McCaffery, J. Michael; Youle, Richard J.; Nunnari, Jodi (2011). "The Soluble Form of Bax Regulates Mitochondrial Fusion via MFN2 Homotypic Complexes". Molecular Cell. 41 (2): 150–160. doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2010.11.030. PMC 3072068. PMID 21255726.
34. ^ ^{a b} Mignard, V; Lalier, L; Paris, F; Vallette, FM (29 May 2014). "Bioactive lipids and the control of Bax pro-apoptotic activity". Cell Death & Disease. 5 (5): e1266. doi:10.1038/cddis.2014.226. PMC 4047880. PMID 24874738.

External links[edit]

• Human BAX genome location and BAX gene details page in the UCSC Genome Browser.
• Overview of all the structural information available in the PDB for UniProt: Q07812 (Human Apoptosis regulator BAX) at the PDBe-KB.
• Overview of all the structural information available in the PDB for UniProt: Q07813 (Mouse Apoptosis regulator BAX) at the PDBe-KB.

v t e PDB gallery
1f16: SOLUTION STRUCTURE OF A PRO-APOPTOTIC PROTEIN BAX

v t e Apoptosis signaling pathway
Fas path	Ligand Fas ligand Receptor Fas receptor Intracellular Death-inducing signaling complex DAXX ASK1 FADD Caspase 8 BID Cytochrome c Caspase 9 Caspase 3 Bcl-2 family Pro-apoptotic: BAX BAK1/Bcl-2 homologous antagonist killer Bcl-2-associated death promoter Anti-apoptotic: Bcl-2 Bcl-xL
TNF path	Ligand Tumor necrosis factor alpha Receptor Tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 Tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 Intracellular TRADD FADD Caspase 8 Caspase 3 BID TRAF2 ASK-1 MEKK1 IKK IκBα MKK7 JNK NF-κB
Other	Intracellular IAPs XIAP NAIP Survivin c-IAP-1 c-IAP-2 Apoptosis-inducing factor

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bcl-2-associated_X_protein&oldid=1039936140"

Categories:

• Genes on human chromosome 19
• Apoptosis
• Programmed cell death
• Proteins

Hidden categories:

• Use dmy dates from December 2016

Navigation menu

Personal tools

• Not logged in
• Talk
• Contributions
• Create account
• Log in

Namespaces

• Article
• Talk

English expanded collapsed

Views

• Read
• Edit
• View history

More expanded collapsed

Search

Navigation

• Main page
• Contents
• Current events
• Random article
• About Wikipedia
• Contact us
• Donate

Contribute

• Help
• Learn to edit
• Community portal
• Recent changes
• Upload file

Tools

• What links here
• Related changes
• Upload file
• Special pages
• Permanent link
• Page information
• Cite this page
• Wikidata item

Print/export

• Download as PDF
• Printable version

Languages

• Cymraeg
• Deutsch
• فارسی
• Français
• 日本語
• Polski
• Português
• Türkçe
• Українська

Edit links

• This page was last edited on 21 August 2021, at 17:32 (UTC).
• Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

• Privacy policy
• About Wikipedia
• Disclaimers
• Contact Wikipedia
• Mobile view
• Developers
• Statistics
• Cookie statement

• 
•